In 35% of cases, soldiers work in intermediate and hazardous zones and in 22%only in the intermediate zone. fMicrowave Radiation Comes From Many Sources, Including: Cell phones. eliminating microwave and RF sources. Reduction of Phosphorylated Synapsin I (Ser-553) leads to spatial memory impairment by attenuating GABA release after microwave exposure in Wistar rats. A significant increase in ROS levels and DNA fragmentation were observed only after the astrocytes were exposed to modulated EMF for 20min, perhaps as a result of hyperstimulation of glutamate receptors. Effects of isothermal 2.45 GHz microwave radiation on the mammalian cell Ci ihff fihl2MHdifdi i Bi l h. C Spr '05 Inan, OT Thermal effects of RF he above diagram depicts the electric field alternations, at a frequency f, of the This damage plays a key role in the structural and functional changes that are accelerated by neuronal degeneration. Zhang Y, Li Z, Gao Y. Int J Radiat Biol. CAS 2014;8:63. Xu S, Ning W, Xu Z, Zhou S, Chiang H, Luo J. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Mosconi L, Tsui WH, Rusinek H, De Santi S, Li Y, Wang GJ, et al. Toxicol Sci. Im HI, Kenny PJ. After irradiation was applied for 2h/d for 60 d, the authors observed the following: microwave radiation produced by mobile phones damaged the brains of adult and young rats, the damage caused by mobile phones in the calling state was significantly more severe than that observed in the standby group, and the neurons of young rats were more seriously injured than those of adult rats. Hinrikus H, Bachmann M, Lass J, Karai D, Tuulik V. Effect of low frequency modulated microwave exposure on human EEG: individual sensitivity. Is nuclear respiratory factor 2 a master transcriptional coordinator for all ten nuclear-encoded cytochrome c oxidase subunits in neurons? 1975;148:1723. Int J Epidemiol. This study also revealed the dose-dependent relationship of the modulated microwave effect: decreasing the SAR 100-fold reduced the associated changes in the EEG by three- to six-fold and decreased the number of affected subjects but did not completely eliminate the effects. In particular, somatization, obsessive compulsivity, paranoid ideation and psychoticism were reported [17]. Electromagn Biol Med. Chronic exposure to GSM 1800-MHz microwaves reduces excitatory synaptic activity in cultured hippocampal neurons. More data are available regarding opinions on potential health effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields [3]. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. A metabolomic approach to screening urinary metabolites upon microwave exposure in monkeys. 2015;148:150. 2014;12:75. 1984;11:4760. Int J Hyg Environ Health. J Pharm Sci. statement and The above results indicate a positive biological effect of microwave radiation and present a challenge with regard to how people can benefit from microwave radiation. Biol Chem. Concurrently, the discovery that microwaves have positive biological effects has presented new challenges for research and applications in this field. Mol Brain Res. 2006;27:16471. Richter et al. Koivisto M, Krause CM, Revonsuo A, Laine M, Hmlinen H. The effects of electromagnetic field emitted by GSM phones on working memory. Synaptic vesicles form in different parts of neurons and contain high concentrations of substances that are transferred from the neuron. Exposure to microwaves and silencing p-synapsin I reduced the release of GABA, and maximum reduction was achieved when both were combined, indicating a synergistic effect. Springer Nature. 2013;32:27380. J Radiat Res (Tokyo). One of the bad impacts a microwave has on humans, is that some of the acids in the food people put in the microwave, gets transformed into a type of acid which turns poisonous. Neurobiol Learn Mem. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. However, it concurrently also declared that the carcinogenic potential of mobile communications equipment was limited to glioma [4]. 2010;3:4650. Synaptic plasticity is a special function of synapses, which play an important role in learning and memory processes [46], including structural and functional plasticity. Perentos A, Cuesta-Soto F, Canciamilla A, Vidal B, Pierno L, Losilla NS, et al. Additionally, in the 2.4W/kg group, neuronal filopodial density and activity were lower on day 8, and there was a reduction of the dendritic spine maturity on day 14. Zhang et al. 2023 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Sage C, Carpenter D, Hardell L. Comments on SCENIHR: opinion on potential health effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields. 2016;25:31827. EEG is often used as a tool to diagnose Alzheimers disease [48]. Kwon et al. Defective actin dynamics in dendritic spines: cause or consequence of age-induced cognitive decline? Bioelectromagnetics. Medical and biological aspects of the effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic (EM) fields and radiation on human health . Nuclear pyknosis and capillary congestion are also observed. BOOTP and DHCP.ppt anik301. radiation with wavelengths. CAS Oto R, Akda Z, Dada S, Celik Y. Sanders AP, Joines WT. 2009;63:10106. Mortazavi S, Rouintan M, Taeb S, Dehghan N, Ghaffarpanah A, Sadeghi Z, et al. Cull-Candy SG, Leszkiewicz DN. The results indicated that radar microwave radiation leads to a decreased reaction time and lower short-term memory performance [18]. NR2B plays a key role in LTP and was decreased from the 3rd to the 18th month post-treatment, and long-term exposure to high doses of radiation may therefore damage cognitive functions. [63] exposed rat hippocampal neurons to microwaves (SAR values of 0.8W/kg and 2.4W/kg at an average power density of 1800MHz/d) and observed the formation of dendritic filopodial and dendritic branches and the maturation of dendritic spines in neurons from day 6 to 14. The results showed that 2.1GHz W-CDMA-modulated microwave radiation did not cause apoptotic cell death but altered cell cycle progression [79]. Acetylcholine: cognitive and brain functions. Because a childs nervous system is growing and their head is more vulnerable to radiation energy, studies that have specifically addressed whether the nervous systems of children are more susceptible to electromagnetic radiation have been performed. Belyaev IY, Koch CB, Terenius O, Roxstrm-Lindquist K, Malmgren LO, Sommer HW, et al. [15] assessed the use of mobile and cordless phones in 347 cases of melanoma in the head and neck region and 1184 controls and found no increased risk. The interaction of microwaves with matter other than metallic conductors will be to rotate molecules and produce heat as result of that molecular motion. Yale J Biol Med. J Neurosci Methods. Decreased synthesis of acetylcholine accompanying impaired oxidation of pyruvic acid in rat brain minces. To determine the specific dose-effect relationship between microwave radiation and its biological effects, more intensive studies must be performed. Of the numerous studies performed to explore the effects of mobile communication devices on humans, only a few have shown that cell phones and brain tumors are statistically correlated. Neurologic and biochemical findings and CD4/CD8 ratio in people occupationally exposed to RF and microwave. Nimchinsky EA, Sabatini BL, Svoboda K. Structure and function of dendritic spines. In 43% of devices, military personnel are not exposed to an electromagnetic field. Neuroreport. 2006;79:13140. 2010;39:67594. 1996;93:46938. The SAR of the two groups were 0.303W/kg and 0.003W/kg. The experimental rats were divided into six groups of 3 adult rats and 3 young rats in each group (with control, GSM alone and call-receiving subgroups in each group). Bioelectromagnetics. 1996;180:917. Brain proteome response following whole body exposure of mice to mobile phone or wireless DECT base radiation. Hardell L, Carlberg M, Mild KH, Eriksson M. Case-control study on the use of mobile and cordless phones and the risk for malignant melanoma in the head and neck region. The brain has been recognized as one of the organs that is most vulnerable to microwave radiation. The results of EEG and analyses of the structure of the brain after radiation have also confirmed the influence of microwaves. Chizhenkova R. Slow potentials and spike unit activity of the cerebral cortex of rabbits exposed to microwaves. Most matter, including the human body, is largely . Resulting Effects on the Human Body. Furukawa H, Singh SK, Mancusso R, Gouaux E. Subunit arrangement and function in NMDA receptors. J Neuro-Oncol. Dasdag et al. GSM mobile phone radiation suppresses brain glucose metabolism. PubMed Kang D, Hamasaki N. Mitochondrial transcription factor a in the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA. Bioelectromagnetics. 2003;11:346. [102] exposed rats to 9.15MHz microwaves (SAR: 0.4mW/g) for 2h. They found that in the cerebellum of all the exposed animals, 11 genes were up-regulated from 1.34- to 2.74-fold, and one gene was down-regulated 0.48-fold. 2013;34:26474. Calabr E, Magaz S. Inspections of mobile phone microwaves effects on proteins secondary structure by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Dasdag et al. [72] found that 2.856GHz, 50mW/cm2 pulsed microwave radiation caused persistent spatial memory impairments, disordered neurotransmitters, and varying degrees of damage in the hippocampus and synapses. The effect of Wi-Fi electromagnetic waves in unimodal and multimodal object recognition tasks in male rats. Pathophysiology. Sharma A, Sisodia R, Bhatnagar D, Saxena VK. Harmful effects of microwaves on living beings . Evaluation of Psychologic parameters in people occupationally exposed to radiofrequencies and microwave. millimeter, or equivalently. Gold PE. Clin Neurophysiol. Proliferation and apoptosis in a neuroblastoma cell line exposed to 900 MHz modulated radiofrequency field. Joubert et al. Frequency Fields (RF) and Microwave Radiation on human health" by the Scientific Committee on Toxicity, Ecotoxicity and the Environment (CSTEE) from 2001, with respect . Qutob S, Chauhan V, Bellier P, Yauk C, Douglas G, Berndt L, et al. Use of mobile phones and risk of brain tumours: update of Danish cohort study. Mobile phone use and risk of tumors: a meta-analysis. 2008;49:16370. J Environ Health Sci Eng. 2004;23:20114. SAR Value There are guidelines internationally for short term exposure to cell phone frequency microwaves, defined in terms of the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR), the rate at which energy is absorbed by the human body when exposed to radio frequency radiation. 2010;86:37683. Srinivasan R. Anatomical constraints on source models for high-resolution EEG and MEG derived from MRI. N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR) is a tetramer composed of two NR1 and two NR2 subunits or two NR3 subunits that perform the functions of NMDAR [69, 70], and NMDAR plays key roles in synapse development, synaptic plasticity and neurological diseases. Wang H, Peng R, Zhao L, Wang S, Gao Y, Wang L, et al. 1994;15:95104. Thus, the committee suggested that in the future, studies should explore the border between thermal and non-thermal effects and that specific effects, such as triggering the onset of thermoregulatory reactions, should be defined. 2002;64:31353. Fragopoulou et al. In the group treated with 0.8W/kg, there was no significant change. Li HJ, Peng RY, Wang CZ, Qiao SM, Yong Z, Gao YB, et al. 2003;140:147. 2005;1042:1018. These conclusions are presented in Table2. Dasdag S, Balci K, Ayyildiz M, Celik M, Tekes S, Kaplan A. Google Scholar. Brain Res. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (61571455). Jeong J. EEG dynamics in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Narayanan SN, Kumar RS, Potu BK, Nayak S, Mailankot M. Spatial memory perfomance of wistar rats exposed to mobile phone. Biotechnol Biotechnol Equip. Merola P, Marino C, Lovisolo G, Pinto R, Laconi C, Negroni A. 2012;21:6209. The frequencies of these devices are listed in Table1. Scientific, technical publications in the nuclear field | IAEA However, Li et al. 2008;169:3845. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Sci STKE. Nakatani-Enomoto S, Furubayashi T, Ushiyama A, Groiss SJ, Ueshima K, Sokejima S, et al. Mitochondria morphologic changes and metabolic effects of rat hippocampus after microwave irradiation. More than 50% of miRNAs are found in cancer-associated regions of the genome or in fragile sites, suggesting that miRNAs also play important roles in the pathogenesis of neoplasias [96]. J Electromagnet Anal. [62] irradiated Wistar rats, hippocampal synaptosomes and differentiated PC12 cells using microwaves (average power density, 30mW/cm2) for 5min, and the results showed that the post-exposure spatial memory of the rats was significantly decreased, the post-exposure levels of phosphorylated synapsin I (p-synapsin I) and GABA were decreased in the rat and cell experiments, and the post-exposure levels of vesicular GABA transporter and p-synapsin I were increased in small clear synaptic vesicles (which were abnormally assembled in presynaptic terminals) in the rat experiments. Some studies have proposed that miRNAs play important roles in nerve regeneration, neurodegenerative diseases, and the pathogenesis of neuroblastoma and schizophrenia [93,94,95]. Behav Brain Res. [42] found similar results. Because the frequency of microwaves is sufficiently high that the energy is absorbed, the subsequent heating of tissue becomes its major mechanism, and most biochemical and physiological responses are temperature-dependent. Lai et al. Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China, You can also search for this author in PubMed Effects of fetal microwave radiation exposure on offspring behavior in mice. This conclusion is consistent with the results of a previously reported study that showed that short-term exposure to microwave radiation can reduce reaction times and improve cognitive functions, attention and short-term memory capacity [28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. Verma RK, Sisodia R, Bhatia A. Radioprotective role of Amaranthus Gangeticus Linn. [40] also repeated the experiment only and found that radial-arm maze performance in rats remained unchanged. Int J Occup Environ Health. Eliyahu I, Luria R, Hareuveny R, Margaliot M, Meiran N, Shani G. Effects of radiofrequency radiation emitted by cellular telephones on the cognitive functions of humans. 2011;174:211. Google Scholar. Cobb BL, Jauchem JR, Adair ER. Therefore, the authors concluded that exposure to a radiofrequency of 900MHz might trigger the neoplastic process because it produces a relative increase in the number of potentially long-lived cells. 2012;25:1828. Brain Res Rev. Chandrasekaran K, Hatanp K, Rapoport SI, Brady DR. Sleep EEG alterations: effects of pulsed magnetic fields versus pulse-modulated radio frequency electromagnetic fields. 2012;3:3440. With the popularity of microwave technology, microwave effects on the human body have become a common topic of concern, and the central nervous system is recognized as a target organ system that is sensitive to microwave radiation. The study also showed that exposure to GSM microwaves at 915MHz did not induce detectable DNA double-strand breaks but affected the expression of genes in rat brain cells. Alterations of cognitive function and 5-HT system in rats after long term microwave exposure. Behav Brain Res. Synapse. 2006;27:11926. Predictors and overestimation of recalled mobile phone use among children and adolescents. [83] found that long-term exposure to microwave radiation (typical mobile phone, at an SAR level range of 0.170.37W/kg for 3h daily for 8months, or wireless digital enhanced cordless telecommunications/telephone (DECT) base at an SAR level range of 0.0120.028W/kg for 8h/d for 8months) induced the synthesis of 143 proteins, including some neuronal function-associated proteins such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), glial maturation factor (GMF), apolipo protein E, heat-shock protein, cytoskeletal proteins and some proteins that are associated with metabolism in the brain. Dasdag S, Balci K, Celik M, Batun S, Kaplan A, Bolaman Z, et al. PLoS One. The induced genes encoded proteins with a variety of functions, including neurotransmitter regulation, BBB maintenance, and melatonin production. 2015;140:23646. Radiat Res. Many studies have been made on the biological effects of microwave radiation. The thermal effects of exposure to RF and microwave radiation are well established and fairly well understood. [82] exposed animals to 900MHz microwave radiation for 2h/d for 10months and removed the brain tissues. Bioelectromagnetics. 2010;1347:17985. [16] investigated workers who worked at a television transmitter station with a frequency ranging between 202 and 209MHz, 694701MHz, 750757MHz, or 774781MHz and at a medium-wave broadcasting station. -amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-soxazole propionic acid, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, Cross-modal visual-tactile object recognition, Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications/telephone, International agency for research on cancer, Miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents, Scientific committee on emerging and newly identified health risks. 2005;161:3314. Zhao L, Peng RY, Gao YB, Wang SM, Wang LF, Dong J, et al. Microwaves can influence mitochondria by damaging their structure [45], reducing ATP levels and affecting the activity of relevant enzymes such as succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and cytochrome coxidase (COX) [119,120,121]. In the probe test, the exposed group could not locate the platform and exhibited a significantly higher mean latency (i.e., 3-fold higher) to reach the target quadrant, and they spent only half the time that the controls spent in the target quadrant. 2011;35:36978. Int J Radiat Biol. 2014;9:e95503. Correspondence to The potential mechanisms underlying these damaging effects range from gene expression alterations in the respiratory chain, membrane damage, Ca2+ overloading, and DNA impairment [122,123,124,125,126,127,128]. [50] exposed Wistar rats to 2.856GHz microwaves at an average power density of 5, 10, 20 or 30mW/cm2 for 6min three times per week for up to 6weeks and found that on day 14 after irradiation, the levels of Asp and Glu were lower in the hippocampus in the group treated with 5mW/cm2 but higher in the group treated with 30mW/cm2, The levels of GABA were elevated. Google Scholar. 2005;360:6577. This study concerns the effects of microwave on health because they pervade diverse fields of our lives. Of these, five rats were repeatedly exposed to extremely low-frequency microwaves (915MHz; pulse width, 20ms; average power density, 0.3mW/cm2; repetition frequency, 4.0Hz; intermittently for 1min, On for 1min, and Off for 10min; SAR, 0.7mW/g) and 5 were in the sham group. Each of these effects are also caused by exposures to other microwave frequency EMFs, with Messier C, Durkin T, Mrabet O, Destrade C. Memory-improving action of glucose: indirect evidence for a facilitation of hippocampal acetylcholine synthesis. volume4, Articlenumber:29 (2017) CAS 2013;34:58998. Lai H, Horita A, Guy AW. This phenomenon may be explained by the varied radiation dosage adopted in these studies. Technol Cancer Res Treat. Li H, Li C. Apoptosis gene expression and their relationship to mtDNA mutation in tumor tissues of gynecologic oncology patients. In the lower SAR group, the , 1 and 2 bands were affected in the three subjects. The biological effects of RF energy are proportional to the rate of ener-gy absorption, and the level of absorption varies little with fre-quency. 2002;13:11921. PubMed Central Behav Brain Res. Mortazavi et al. However, its beneficial effects should not be ignored [26]. daily life. Previous studies have produced a large amount of information, and some progress has been made in theory, but the mechanisms have not yet been fully determined, and many points are still disputed. Ann N Y Acad Sci. [64] exposed cultured rat hippocampal neurons to GSM 1800MHz microwaves (SAR, 2.4W/kg) and observed a selective decrease in the amplitude of -amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-soxazole propionic acid (AMPA) miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs). Caubet R, Pedarros-Caubet F, Chu M, Freye E, de Belem RM, Moreau J, et al. The central nervous system, especially the hippocampus, is highly sensitive to microwave radiation [43, 44]. Acta Neurol Belg. Microwaves are widely used in households, industry, communications, and medical and military buildings, and they provide substantial contributions to the development of human society. At present, due to a general consensus that the most significant parameter for . Damage to learning abilities and reduction of glucose utilization in the limbic system of adult rats are closely linked [109]. Suhhova A, Bachmann M, Karai D, Lass J, Hinrikus H. Effect of microwave radiation on human EEG at two different levels of exposure. Khurana VG, Teo C, Kundi M, Hardell L, Carlberg M. Cell phones and brain tumors: a review including the long-term epidemiologic data. 2015;91:30611. After studying these effects, Hertel concluded that microwaving food leads to food degeneration. CAS Effects of 2.4 GHz radiofrequency radiation emitted from Wi-Fi equipment on microRNA expression in brain tissue. Conductors will strongly absorb microwaves and any lower frequencies because they will cause electric currents which will heat the material. 1993;13:41322. The former is now recognized worldwide as a method for evaluating learning and memory, while the latter is viewed as more susceptible to other factors. Szmigielski [23] collected retrospective data for Polish soldiers over 15years and showed that the prevalence of brain cancer was higher in each age group. Physiol Behav. [59] exposed Wistar albino pregnant rats to a 2.45GHz Wi-Fi signal for 2h/d throughout the gestation period and found that the neurodevelopment, cerebral stress equilibrium and cholinesterase activity of the offspring were affected. Most bioassay and genotoxicity or mutation studies that have been performed in vitro have reported that exposure to microwave radiation at non-thermal levels does not have mutagenic/genotoxic/carcinogenic effects. Mol Neurobiol. Kan P, Simonsen SE, Lyon JL, Kestle JR. Cellular phone use and brain tumor: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants in vivo and is characterized by a biochemical state that tends toward oxidization, including the formation of oxygen free radicals (i.e., ROS) and nitrogen radicals reactive nitrogen species (RNS), which play major roles in oxidation. The direct cause of the observed neuronal damage may have been apoptosis induced by the microwave radiation, and an indirect cause may have been an increase in permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which would allow the traversal of toxic substances that could cause damage. Szmigielski S. Cancer risks related to low-level RF/MW exposures, including cell phones. 2003;14:2436. 2008;22:9927. Many recent studies have reported that microwaves exposure affects EEG results [54,55,56,57]. 2004;2004:19. Human SH-SY5YNB cells were exposed to 2.1GHz W-CDMA modulated microwave radiation for 24h at a specific absorption rate of 0.491W/kg. Additionally, Larjabaara et al. Chronic nonmodulated microwave radiations in mice produce anxiety-like and depression-like behaviours and calcium- and NO-related biochemical changes in the brain. Microwave irradiation affects radial-arm maze performance in the rat. Kayhan H, Esmekaya MA, Saglam AS, Tuysuz MZ, Canseven AG, Yagci AM, et al. The results indicated that repeated low-level exposure to extremely low frequency microwaves affects brain functioning and provide an additional approach to analyzing the underlying mechanisms. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2015;28:1324. PubMed Int J Radiat Biol. Motawi et al. Describes the health effects on six men exposed to high levels of RF radiation (100 MHz) while working on transmission masts. Bioelectromagnetics. Cell Biochem Biophys. All of the authors read and approved the final manuscript. The authors detected the EEG within the frequency bands of 0.530.0Hz for 5 consecutive days. 2012;31:6774. Acta Pharmacol Sin. Brain Res. As a result, the existing data exhibit poor reproducibility and comparability. For example, people who have used mobile phones for more than 10years have a clearly higher risk of brain tumors. The Morris water maze has been widely used in neurobehavioral tests [36]. Eastern J Med. Trends Cell Biol. [58] exposed volunteers to microwaves at a frequency of 450MHz for 10 repeated intervals of 1min of irradiation and 1min off. Hans Hertel, a Swiss food scientist, initiated the first tests on microwaved food and microwave cooking to determine how microwaves affect human physiology and the blood. In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) announced that microwave radiation has potentially carcinogenic effects (2B). [39] exposed rats to microwaves (500 pps, pulse width=2s, and average whole body-specific absorption rate (SAR)=0.6W/kg) for an exposure duration of 45min, and a significant decline was observed in the rats performance, indicating that microwave radiation influenced their working memory. Radiofrequency (RF) and microwave (MW) radiation are electromagnetic radiation in the frequency ranges 3 kilohertz (kHz) - 300 Megahertz (MHz), and 300 MHz - 300 gigahertz (GHz), respectively. Google Scholar. The relationship between NMDA receptors and microwave induced learning and memory impairment: a long term observation on Wistar rats. PubMed Since mobile phones are used in positions very close to the human body and require a large : a biochemical study on mouse brain. Microwave radiation can induce oxidative and nitrosative stress, which lead to hippocampal neuronal and non-neuronal apoptosis via the oxidative damage of cellular constituents (i.e., nucleic acids, proteins and lipids) and subsequent over expression of p53, which up-regulates Bax and down-regulates pro-caspase-3 and full-length/uncleaved poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) 1, eventually inducing neuronal degeneration via apoptosis [76]. Cordless phone in power levels very high and microwave frequency level also high. Int J Radiat Biol. 2015;36:4804. 2005;161:52635. Military Medical Research Article The largest problem in these studies is that they used different parameters, such as the frequency, modulation, power density and irradiation time, to apply microwave radiation, in addition to using a variety of research methods. However, with its popularization, increasing attention has been paid to its influence on humans.
Tyler Hamilton Montana,
Blowing Rock Nc Obituaries,
Dragonfable Leveling Guide,
Tom And Ariana House Address,
Egyptian Heart And Feather Scale Tattoo,
Articles E
